Romania -- Geography --
Official Name: Romania
Capital City: Bucharest
Languages: Romanian (official), Hungarian, German, others
Official Currency: Leu
Religions: Romanian Orthodox, Catholic, others
Population: 19,036,031 (2025)
Land Area: 230,340 sq km
Landforms: The Carpathian Mountains and Transylvania Mountains
are situated at the central part of Romania.
Those mountains slope down into much flatter land in the south and southeast.
The Prut River forms its eastern border with Moldova, and the Danube River forms
it's southern border with Bulgaria.
Romania -- History --
In 513 BC, south of the Danube, the tribal confederation of the Getae were defeated by Darius during his campaign against the Scythians (Herodotus IV.93).
Over half a millennium later, the Getae (also named Daci by Romans) were defeated by the Roman Empire under Emperor Trajan in two campaigns stretching
from 101 to 106, and the core of their kingdom was turned into the Roman province of Dacia.
The Gothic and Carpic campaigns in the Balkans during 238–256 forced the Roman Empire to reorganize a new Roman province of Dacia south of Danube,
inside former Moesia Superior.
In 271 or 275 the Roman army and administration left Dacia,
which was invaded by the Goths, who lived with the local people until the fourth century, when another nomadic people arrived, the Huns.
The Gepids and the Avars ruled Transylvania until the 8th century, after which the Bulgars included the southern part of Romania in their Empire until 1257.
But from the destructions and the financial burdens, the local people were not influenced by the migrators in their culture and way of life.
The Pechenegs, the Cumans and Uzes were also mentioned by historic chronicles on the territory of Romania (the Pechenegs in the south of Transilvania,
the Cumans in the north-east of Wallachia) until the founding of the Vlachian principalities of Wallachia by Basarab I, and Moldavia by Dragos during
the 13th and 14th centuries respectively. In the Middle Ages, Romanians lived in two distinct independent principalities:
Wallachia(Rom.:Tara Romaneasca), Moldavia(Rom.: Moldova).
Romanian people also lived in Transilvania, which was, begining with the eleventh century, under Hungarian rule.
In 1475, Stephen the Great of Moldavia scored a decisive victory over the Ottoman Empire at the Battle of Vaslui.
Wallachia and Moldavia would later come gradually under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire during the 15th and 16th centuries
(1476 for Wallachia, 1514 for Moldavia), as vassal tributary states with complete internal autonomy and an external independence which was
finally lost in the 18th century. 1812 the Russian Empire annexed the eastern half side Bessarabia of Moldova (though partially regained it
with the Treaty of Paris in 1856), the Austrian Empire annexed in 1775 its northern part Bukovina and the Ottoman Empire its south-eastern part Budjak.
Transylvania came under control of the Kingdom of Hungary by the end of 9th century (from 1301, Hungary became possessions of the Houses of Anjou and Habsburg).
One of the greatest Hungarian kings, Matthias Corvinus (known in Romanian as Matei Corvin - with romanian origin, ruled 1458–1490)—
was born in Transylvania, and is claimed by the Romanians because of his half-Romanian father, Iancu de Hunedoara (
Hunyadi Janos in Hungarian), and by the Hungarians because of his Hungarian mother. Later, in 1541, Transylvania became a multi-ethnic
principality under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire following the Battle of Mohacs. At the end of the 18th century,
the Austrian Habsburgs incorporated Transylvania into the Austrian Empire. During the time of the Dual Monarchy of
Austria-Hungary (1867–1918), Romanians in Transylvania experienced one of the worst oppression in the form of the Magyarization
policies of the Hungarian government.
The modern state of Romania was formed by the merging of the principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia in 1859 under the Moldavian domnitor
Alexander John Cuza. He was replaced by Prince Karl of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen in 1866.
During the Russo-Turkish War, Romania fought on the Russian side; in the Treaty of Berlin in 1878 Romania was recognized as an
independent state by the Great Powers. In return for ceding to Russia the three southern districts of Bessarabia which had been
regained by Moldavia after the Crimean War in 1852, the Kingdom of Romania acquired Dobruja.
In 1881 the principality was raised to a kingdom and Prince Carol I became King Carol I.
In spite of its previous alliance with Imperial Germany and Austria-Hungary, Romania entered World War I on the side of the Triple Entente
in a move aimed at acquiring Transylvania. By war's end Austria-Hungary and the Russian Empire had collapsed, allowing Bessarabia,
Bukovina and Transylvania to unite with the Kingdom of Romania in 1918. Union of Transylvania with Romania was ratified in the Treaty of Trianon in 1920.
In 1940 during World War II, Northern Bukovina and Bessarabia, Northern Transylvania, and southern Dobrudja were occupied by the Soviet Union,
Hungary and Bulgaria respectively (see Romania during World War II). The authoritarian King Carol II abdicated in 1940 and the subsequent year
Romania entered the war joining Nazi Germany, Italy, Hungary and Bulgaria. Because Romania participated in the invasion of the Soviet Union,
the country recovered Bessarabia and northern Bukovina under the leadership of general Ion Antonescu.
During the Second World War, the Antonescu regime, allied with Nazi Germany, played a role in the Holocaust, following its policy of oppression
and massacre of the Jews, and, to a lesser extent, Roma. According to a quite controversial report released on 2004 by a commision
appointed by former Romanian president Ion Iliescu and chaired by Nobel Laureate Elie Wiesel, the Romanian authorities were the main
perpetrators in the planning and implementation of the killing of between 280,000 to 380,000 Jews,
primarily in the Eastern territories Romania recovered or occupied from the Soviet Union and in Moldavia, though some estimates are even higher.
In August 1944 the Antonescu regime was toppled, and Romania joined the Red Army against Nazi Germany, but its role in the defeat of Germany was
not recognized by the Paris Peace Conference of 1947.
With the Red Army forces still stationed in the country and exerting defacto control, communists and their allied parties claimed 80%
of the vote in the 1946 Romanian elections, through a combination of vote manipulation, elimination and forced mergers of competing parties,
establishing themselves as the dominant force; Western democracies left Romania in the hands of the Soviet Union.
In 1947, King Michael I was forced by the communists to abdicate and leave the country.
Romania was proclaimed a socialist state, under direct military and economic control of the USSR until 1958.
A short-lived period of relative economic well-being and openness followed in late 1960s and the beginning of the 1970s, s
till regarded by some as a "golden era". This period gradually ended, first politically, and then economically.
Some party leaders (such as Ion Iliescu, Corneliu Manescu, or Gheorghe Apostol) who questioned the
achievements of the regime during the latter portion of this era, were sent to lower positions, which, in 1989,
justified their "dissident" position. From an economic point of view, Romania's foreign debt sharply increased
between 1977 and 1981 (from 3 to 10 billion US dollars). Thus, the influence of international financial organisms
such as the IMF or the World Bank grew, conflicting with Ceausescu's autarchic policies.
Ceausescu eventually initiated a project of total reimbursement of the foreign debt (completed in 1989, shortly before his overthrow).
To achieve this goal, he imposed policies that impoverished Romanians and exhausted the Romanian economy.
He profoundly deepened Romania's police state (see Securitate) and imposed a cult of personality.
One positive achievement of the Communist period was the spread of near-universal literacy and the development of a
very efficient education system. However, this educational transformation was not coupled with appropriate industrial
development and urbanization policies, so that almost half of Romania's population is still rural (47.3%; see Demography of Romania),
and mostly poor. Another achievement is the negotiated retreat of Soviet troops from Romania, in 1958.
This allowed the country to pursue independent policies, including the condemnation by the Communist Party of Romania of the
Soviet-led 1968 invasion of Czechoslovakia (Romania was the only country of the Warsaw pact not to take part into the invasion),
the continuation of Romanian-Israeli diplomatic relations after the Six-Day War of 1967 (Romania was the only country in the Warsaw pact to do so),
the establishment of economic (1963) and diplomatic (1967) relations with the Federal Republic of Germany, and so forth.
Close ties between Romania and both Israel and the Arab countries (and the PLO) allowed Romania to play an essential role in
the Israel-Egypt and Israel-PLO peace processes.
The socialist rule ended 22 December 1989 (see Romanian Revolution of 1989).
ollowing the end of the Cold War in 1989, Romania developed closer ties with Western Europe,
joined NATO in 2004 and became an acceding country to the European Union, being at an advanced stage to join on January 1, 2007.
Romania -- Economy --
General Information: The political and economic changes that took place in Romania in the 1980s and 1990s made daily
life difficult for ordinary citizens.
Romania is richly endowed with fertile agricultural lands, a variety of energy resources, and an educated workforce.
Yet Romania’s standard of living remains lower than in most other nations of Europe. Since the fall of communism in 1989, Romania has
taken significant steps toward a market-oriented economy, although the transition has not been easy.
Agriculture: Agriculture remains an important part of Romania’s economy, occupying approximately 40 percent of
the Romanian work force. Field crops or orchards cover 43 percent of land in Romania. Romania’s principal crops include cereal grains,
such as corn, wheat, barley, and rye; potatoes; grapes; and sugar beets.
Cattle, pigs, sheep, horses, and poultry are the most important types of livestock.
Wine production plays a significant role in Romanian agriculture. Today, most of Romania’s farmland has been returned to private hands.
Forestry and Fishing: Forests, which cover 28 percent of Romania’s total land area, are state property. The country’s timber provides
the basis for important lumber, paper, and furniture industries. The Black Sea and the Danube delta regions are known for their sturgeon catch.
Romania’s fishing operations in the Atlantic Ocean are significant.
Mining: Petroleum is Romania’s principal mineral resource, and the city of Ploiesti is the center of the nation’s petroleum-refining industry.
However, petroleum production is declining due to the gradual depletion of reserves. Natural gas is also produced in significant quantities.
Other mineral products include hard coal, lignite (brown coal), iron ore, bauxite, copper, lead, and zinc.
Manufacturing: During the socialist period, Romania’s leaders pursued a policy of rapid industrialization with an emphasis on heavy industry,
particularly the production of iron and steel, machinery and transportation equipment, and chemicals. A lesser emphasis was placed on production
of consumer goods (goods manufactured for use by people). Today, Romania’s chief manufactured goods include
iron and steel, machinery and transportation equipment, chemicals, cement and other construction materials,
wood products, processed foods, and textiles and clothing.
Energy: Thermal power plants fueled by petroleum, natural gas, and coal supply 63 percent of Romania’s electricity,
while most of the rest comes from hydroelectric facilities. The country has two major hydroelectric plants,
operated jointly with Serbia at the Iron Gate gorge on the Danube. A nuclear power plant opened in 1996 at Cernavoda.
Tourism and Foreign Trade: Romania’s tourism industry has expanded significantly since the end of the communist period, although there is
considerable room for further growth. Popular attractions include skiing and hiking in the Carpathian Mountains;
the Danube delta region, which draws fishing enthusiasts and birdwatchers from around the world;
the medieval castles of Transylvania and the painted monasteries of Bukovina; and the seaside resorts and beaches of the Black Sea.
During the early part of the socialist period, Romania’s foreign trade was conducted almost exclusively with the
Soviet Union and other communist countries. However, in the 1960s trade restrictions were eased somewhat and
Romania began expanding its contacts with Western nations. In 2002 exports totaled $13.9 billion and imports totaled $17.9 billion.
Principal exports include metals and metal products, mineral products, textiles, and electrical machines and equipment.
Imports include minerals, machinery and equipment, textiles, and agriculture goods.
Leading purchasers of Romania’s exports are Germany, Italy, France, Turkey, The Netherlands, and China.
Chief sources for imports are Germany, Italy, Russia, France, the United States, and Egypt.
Currency and Banking: The basic monetary unit of Romania is the leu (plural, lei), divided into 100 bani.
The leu was devalued in October 1990, but since 1991 its value has been determined by the open market. The National Bank of Romania (founded in 1880)
is the country’s bank of issue; it is also responsible for managing monetary policy and supervising the financial activities of all state enterprises.
A number of private banks have opened since 1990, and a Romanian stock exchange opened in Bucharest in June 1995.
Transportation: Romania’s railroad system is owned by the government. Buses and trolleys provide a popular means of transportation within cities,
and Bucharest has a subway system with four major lines. Romania’s principal seaports are Constanta, on the Black Sea, and Galati and Braila,
neighboring cities on the lower Danube; Giurgiu, which has pipeline connections to the oil fields of Ploiesti, is an important river port.
A canal that opened in 1984 links Constanta with Cernavoda, a Danube River port. Another canal, completed in 1992, connects the Main and Danube
rivers and allows transport from the Black Sea to the North Sea via the Rhine River. Romania has two major airlines, TAROM (Romanian Air Transport),
which is owned by the state and serves as the national carrier, and LAR (Romanian Airlines), which was established as an independent airline in 1990.
International airports are located in Bucharest, Constanta, Timisoara, and Arad.
Communications: Romania’s democratic constitution adopted in 1991 (and amended in 2003) provides for freedom of the press.
Despite this constitutional guarantee, however, the press often faces some pressures to limit criticism of economic and political leaders.
Romania’s press has a regional, rather than a national, orientation. Newspapers and periodicals are published in all of the country’s
administrative districts, and many are published in the languages of Romania’s ethnic minorities, including Hungarian,
German, and Serbo-Croatian.
Romania -- Culture --
Romania, country in southeastern Europe, occupying the northeastern part of the Balkan Peninsula.
Romania is a land of historic villages and castles, fertile plains, and majestic mountains. For much of its history, foreign powers,
including the Ottoman Empire and Austria-Hungary, have controlled Romania or parts of it.
Romanian culture is largely derived from Thracian basis with Roman, Slavic, Magyar (Hungarian), Greek, and Turkish influences.
Poems, folktales, and folk music have always held a central place in Romanian life. Romanian literature, art, and music attained maturity in the 19th century.
Although Romania has been influenced by divergent Western trends, it also has a well-developed indigenous folk culture.
Literature:
Romanian literature has a long, rich history. Between the 15th and 18th centuries the national literature was primarily religious,
frequently taking the form of hagiography. In the late 18th century historical writing became the dominant literary form. A number of major works from
this period consider the origins and history of the Romanian people.
In the century before World War I (1914-1918), Romanian literature reflected a sense of national unity. A major figure of this period
was poet Mihai Eminescu, whose work was influenced by German Romanticism. Other authors who distinguished themselves were narrative poet
and dramatist Vasile Alecsandri and dramatist Ion Luca Caragiale, whose plays satirized middle-class life of the late 1800s.
From 1921 to 1945 symbolism became important in Romanian poetry. Important poets of that period were Lucian Blaga, who was also a philosopher,
and Tudor Arghezi. The novel also grew in importance as a literary form at this time, and Mihail Sadoveanu was widely considered Romania’s
most important novelist.
After World War II (1939-1945) through the 1980s, Romania’s literature was dominated by socialist realism—a school of art.
Romanian-born playwright Eugene Ionesco, an influential proponent of the movement known as the theater
of the absurd, became famous while living in post-war France. Romanian-born author Elie Wiesel, recipient of the
1986 Nobel Peace Prize for his work promoting human rights, wrote of his experiences in Nazi concentration camps.
Art and Music:
Romanian art, like Romanian literature, reached a high level of sophistication during the 19th century.
Among the leading painters were Theodor Aman, a portraitist, and landscape painter Nicolae Grigorescu. As with literature,
socialist realism characterized much Romanian art from 1945 to 1989. The simplified, organic works produced by Romanian-born French sculptor
Constantin Brancusi were a notable contribution to 20th-century concepts of art.
Romanians share a rich heritage of folk music and dance. Many traditional Romanian tunes are based on music of the Roma
(or Gypsy) people, thousands of whom once wandered through the countryside. Many Romanians enjoy dancing to folk music played at fast tempo,
often linking arms and showing off impressive footwork. Folk themes have inspired vibrant pop and rock traditions in modern Romania,
notably through the music of the rock band Phoenix and the pop group Emergency Hospital.
Libraries and Museums:
Romania’s principal libraries are the National Library (founded in 1955) and the Library of the Academy of Romania (1867),
both in Bucharest. The Romanian National Museum of Art (1950), in Bucharest, contains fine collections of national,
Western, and Asian art. Other important museums include the Historical Museum of Bucharest (1984) and the Museum
of Romanian Literature (1957), also located in Bucharest.
Food:
Romanian food reflects a wide number of influences, including French, Greek, Russian, and Turkish.
Popular Romanian dishes include mititei (seasoned grilled sausages) and mamaliga (a cornmeal porridge that is especially common in
rural areas and can be served in many different ways). Red and white wines and a plum brandy called tuica are popular beverages
among Romanians, and placinta (turnovers) are a typical dessert.
Sports:
As in many nations of Europe, soccer is the most popular national sport. Romania, which has participated
in the Olympic Games since 1924, is proud of its athletes and maintains special schools to train them.
Romanian athletes have won many gold medals in events as varied as boxing, kayaking, and gymnastics.
The famed gymnast Nadia Comaneci and the international tennis star Ilie Nastase are Romanian.
Romania -- Political system, law and government --
̉he Authorities:
A) Executive Body
The president of Romania is elected by direct, popular vote for a maximum of two five-year terms. The president is head of state, representing the country in matters of foreign affairs, and serves as the commander in chief of the armed forces.
The president appoints a prime minister to head the government. The prime minister is generally the leader of the party or coalition of parties with the majority of seats in parliament. The prime minister is responsible for selecting a cabinet to help carry out the operations of government.
B) Legislature
Romania has a bicameral (two-chamber) parliament called the National Assembly. It is composed of a lower house, called the Chamber of Deputies, and an upper house, called the Senate. Members of both houses of parliament are elected for four-year terms according to a system of proportional representation, apart from a small number of seats in the Chamber of Deputies that are reserved for ethnic minorities. All citizens aged 18 and over are eligible to vote.
C) Judiciary
The Romanian legal system is based on the Code Napoleon (Napoleonic Code). The Supreme Court is Romania’s highest judicial authority. Its members are appointed by the president at the proposal of the Superior Council of Magistrates. In each of Romania’s 41 counties and in the special municipality of Bucharest there is a county court and several lower courts, or courts of first instance. The country also has 15 circuits of appellate courts, in which appeals against sentences passed by local courts are heard; there is a right of appeal from the appellate courts to the Supreme Court.
Romania has a Constitutional Court, charged with ensuring a balance of power among the branches of government. The procurator-general is the highest judicial official in Romania, and is responsible to the National Assembly, which appoints him or her for a four-year term. The death penalty was abolished in December 1989 and is forbidden by the constitution.
Political Parties: Between 1948 and 1989 the only political organization in Romania was the Romanian Communist Party.
Led by Nicolae Ceausescu after 1965, it controlled all aspects of government. After Ceausescu was deposed in 1989,
the Communist Party dissolved and a number of former members formed the National Salvation Front (NSF).
Many other new parties also emerged at this time. The Romanian Communist Party was reestablished in May 1994.
About 90 political parties were registered in Romania by 1994; however, only a small percentage of these were
represented in the government. Many parties in Romania are short-lived, and mergers and coalitions of parties
and political groupings are common. Among the most important parties are the Social Democratic Party (PSD),
formerly known as the Party of Social Democracy of Romania (PSDR); the National Liberal Party (PNL),
which joined in 2003 with another large mainstream party, the Democratic Party (PD), to form the PNL-PD,
or Justice and Truth (DA) alliance; and the anti-immigration Greater Romania Party (PRM).
The Hungarian Democratic Union of Romania represents Romania’s Hungarian minority.
Local Government: Romania is divided into 41 counties and the municipality of Bucharest.
Each unit has its own local government, as do cities, towns, and communes (rural areas), within each county.
Social Services: Romania has a comprehensive social insurance system that includes
medical care, family allowances, retirement pensions, and vacations at health resorts.
Defense: In 2002 the total strength of Romania’s armed forces was 97,200 members.
In addition to centrally controlled units, the armed forces consisted of 66,000 in the army, 14,000
in the air force, and 7,200 in the navy. Military service is compulsory for all men and lasts for a
period of 12 months in the army and air force and 18 months in the navy.
International Organizations: Romania is a member of the United Nations (UN),
the Council of Europe (CE), and the World Trade Organization (WTO). In January 1994 Romania joined the Partnership for Peace program,
and the following year it sent peacekeeping troops to Angola,
thereby participating in its first military operation under UN auspices.
Romania’s chief foreign policy goal after the collapse of socialism, membership in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO),
was achieved in March 2004, when Romania formally joined the defensive alliance. Romania hbecame a full member of the European Union (EU) in 2007.
Bulgarian